The Numbered Treaties, Explained

If you live in the Prairies or the North, you probably live on land covered by one of the numbered treaties. Many people in Canada know that. Fewer know what the treaties actually say, when they were signed, or why they still matter.

We are based in Saskatoon, on Treaty 6 territory. The treaties are part of everyday life on the prairies. This is a plain-language overview, with sources, for anyone who wants to understand them better.

What are the numbered treaties?

The numbered treaties are 11 treaties signed between the Crown and First Nations between 1871 and 1921. According to the Canadian Encyclopedia, they cover the area from Lake of the Woods "to the Rocky Mountains (northeastern British Columbia and interior Plains of Alberta) to the Beaufort Sea." Its plain-language summary says they cover parts of British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Ontario, as well as portions of Yukon and the Northwest Territories.

The Canadian Encyclopedia groups them into two phases:

• Treaties 1 to 7 (1871 to 1877) secured Canada's claim over northern and western lands and opened the way for the railway and farm settlement.
• Treaties 8 to 11 (1899 to 1921) made it easier for the government to access natural resources in the North.

In general terms, the Crown sought land. In return, First Nations were promised, in the Canadian Encyclopedia's words, "reserve lands, annual payments and hunting and fishing rights to unoccupied crown lands." Each treaty had its own terms.

The treaties, one by one

Treaty 1 (1871)

Signed on August 3, 1871, at Lower Fort Garry, also called the Stone Fort. It covers a large part of present-day southeast and south-central Manitoba, including the Red River Valley.

Treaty 2 (1871)

Signed on August 21, 1871, at Manitoba Post on Lake Manitoba. It covers land to the west and north of Manitoba as the province existed in 1871.

Treaty 3 (1873)

Signed on October 3, 1873, at the North-West Angle of the Lake of the Woods, with chiefs of the Saulteaux (Ojibway). The treaty text describes about 55,000 square miles in the Lake of the Woods area.

Treaty 4 (1874)

Signed on September 15, 1874, at Fort Qu'Appelle, by treaty commissioners and 13 chiefs. The Cree, Saulteaux, Ojibwe and Assiniboine nations were involved. Most Treaty 4 land is in present-day southern Saskatchewan, with small portions in western Manitoba and southern Alberta.

Treaty 5 (1875 to 1876)

Signed in 1875 at places including Berens River, Norway House and Grand Rapids, and in 1876 at Dog Head Point, with Ojibwe peoples and the Swampy Cree of Lake Winnipeg. Adhesions followed into 1910. It covers much of present-day central and northern Manitoba, and portions of Saskatchewan and Ontario.

Treaty 6 (1876)

Signed on August 23, 1876, at Fort Carlton and on September 9, 1876, at Fort Pitt, both in present-day Saskatchewan, by Crown representatives and Cree, Assiniboine and Ojibwe leaders. It stretches across central portions of present-day Alberta and Saskatchewan. This is the treaty territory we live and work on in Saskatoon.

According to the Canadian Encyclopedia, Treaty 6 set aside reserve land of one square mile per family of five, and annual payments of $25 per chief, $15 per headman and $5 for all other band members. It also included a medicine chest to be kept at the house of the Indian agent, and rations in times of "famine and pestilence."

The Confederacy of Treaty Six First Nations was created in 1993 to represent Treaty 6 band governments and protect treaty rights. We wrote more about our home territory in Treaty 6 and Saskatoon: where XUSI comes from.

Treaty 7 (1877)

Signed on September 22, 1877, at Blackfoot Crossing, by five First Nations: the Siksika (Blackfoot), Kainai (Blood), Piikani (Peigan), Stoney-Nakoda and Tsuut'ina (Sarcee). It covers land in what is now Alberta.

Treaty 8 (1899)

Signed on June 21, 1899, at Lesser Slave Lake, with Cree, Denesuline (Chipewyan) and Dane-zaa (Beaver) peoples. It covers northern Alberta, northwest Saskatchewan and parts of the Northwest Territories and British Columbia. The Canadian Encyclopedia calls it "the largest treaty by area in the history of Canada."

Treaty 9 (1905 to 1906)

Signed in 1905 and 1906 with Cree and Ojibwe communities in northern Ontario, with commissioners for both the federal and Ontario governments. It covers most of present-day Ontario north of the height of land that divides the Great Lakes watershed from the Hudson Bay and James Bay drainage.

Treaty 10 (1906 to 1907)

Signed in 1906 and 1907 at places including Île-à-la-Crosse, Portage La Loche and Buffalo Narrows. It covers nearly 220,000 square kilometres of Saskatchewan and Alberta.

Treaty 11 (1921)

The last of the numbered treaties, signed in 1921 at communities including Fort Providence, Fort Simpson, Fort Good Hope and Fort Rae. The First Nations involved were mainly Dene, including the Gwich'in, Tlicho (Dogrib) and Sahtu. The Canadian Encyclopedia says it covers more than 950,000 square kilometres.

Two different understandings

The written treaties and the understanding of the First Nations who signed them are not always the same thing. This matters a lot.

The Canadian Encyclopedia notes that "First Nation leaders did not understand the meaning and implication of such treaty terms as 'cede, release, yield up and surrender.'" Its plain-language summary adds that Indigenous people may have understood the treaties as ways to share the land, not to give up ownership of it.

There is also the issue of "outside promises." These were verbal commitments made to First Nations leaders during negotiations that were not written into the treaty texts. Indigenous leaders have argued that the government failed to deliver on them.

When people say "we are all treaty people," this is part of what they mean. A treaty is an agreement with two sides. Both sides carry responsibilities.

What the treaties mean today

The numbered treaties are not only history. The Canadian Encyclopedia says they "have had long-lasting legal, social, and economic impacts on Indigenous people," and that ongoing disputes about treaty terms "have led to modern land claims."

Here are a few ways they show up in daily life:

• Land acknowledgements. When a school, city or business names the treaty territory it is on, it is pointing back to these agreements.
• Treaty rights. Disagreements over hunting, fishing and resource rights on treaty land continue, and have fed into modern land claims.
• Treaty organizations. Groups like the Confederacy of Treaty Six First Nations work to protect treaty rights.
• Education. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission's Call to Action 62 calls for curriculum on Treaties to be a mandatory part of Kindergarten to Grade 12 education.

How to learn more

1. Find out which treaty you live on. Then read about it.
2. Read the treaty text. Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada publishes transcripts of historic treaties, including the numbered treaties, formatted for easy reading.
3. Listen to First Nations perspectives. The written text is one side. Oral histories and Elders' teachings are the other.
4. Carry it into your work. If you run a business or a school, think about what your treaty responsibilities look like in practice.

Why this matters to us

We are two brothers from a small reserve community in northern Saskatchewan. Our business is in Saskatoon, on Treaty 6. The treaties still shape where First Nations communities are and how land is shared today.

When we put Cree words on a hoodie or a tee, we are carrying something forward from that land. You can read about the words on our meanings page, or learn more about us. If you are looking for Indigenous-made clothing, our page on Indigenous clothing in Canada is a good place to start.

Sources

• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Numbered Treaties
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Numbered Treaties (Plain-Language Summary)
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaties 1 and 2
• Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada: Treaty Texts, Treaty No. 3
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 4
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 5
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 6
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 7
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 8
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 9
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 10
• The Canadian Encyclopedia: Treaty 11
• Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada: The Numbered Treaties (1871-1921)
• Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada: Treaty Texts
• Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada: Education for reconciliation (Calls to Action 62 to 65)