Indigenous New Brunswick: Peace and Friendship Treaties and Nations

About New Brunswick

New Brunswick is a Maritime province of forested hills and river valleys, bordered by the Bay of Fundy, with its famous high tides, and by the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Wolastoq (Saint John River) runs through the capital, Fredericton, and Moncton and Saint John are the other main cities. The Canadian Encyclopedia notes 15 First Nations holding 31 reserves in the province, belonging to two peoples, the Mi’kmaq and the Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet), who are part of the Wabanaki Confederacy. Rather than land-surrender treaties, the region is covered by the Peace and Friendship Treaties signed between 1725 and 1779 with the Mi’kmaq, Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy and other nations, which guaranteed continued access to land and resources. Reserve creation began in the 1780s on the Miramichi River. Forestry, fishing and tourism remain important, and the province is Canada’s only officially bilingual one.

New Brunswick history

The Mi’kmaq and Wolastoqiyik lived here long before European ships arrived. They moved with the seasons, wintering on hunting grounds in the wooded uplands and gathering on the shore in summer. The Wolastoqiyik are rooted in the Wolastoq watershed, which runs from the Bay of Fundy north toward the St. Lawrence. Their Mi’kmaq neighbours gave them the name Maliseet. European contact grew in the late 1500s, and disease outbreaks followed. French colonists tried to settle at the mouth of the St. Croix River in 1604. Acadians later farmed tidal marshes behind dykes, until most were expelled by the British in 1755. The Wolastoqey Nation notes that its first treaty with the British was co-developed in 1725 and signed in 1726. A 1760 treaty renewed those promises and set up trading posts. The Supreme Court of Canada has confirmed these treaties remain legally binding. After the American Revolution, about 14,000 Loyalist refugees landed on the north shore of the Bay of Fundy. They founded Saint John and pressed for their own colony. In 1784 Britain split Nova Scotia at the Chignecto Isthmus, naming the western part after the German duchy of Brunswick-Lunenburg. New Brunswick joined Confederation in 1867.

Treaty and territory

New Brunswick is covered by the Peace and Friendship Treaties signed in the 1700s, which did not surrender land. It is home to the Wolastoqiyik (Maliseet), Mi’kmaq and Peskotomuhkati (Passamaquoddy) people.

Nearby: Fredericton · Moncton · Saint John · Elsipogtog First Nation · Sitansisk (St. Mary’s First Nation) · Neqotkuk (Tobique First Nation)

Regions of New Brunswick

New Brunswick falls within the Appalachian region. It shifts from northern uplands to rolling central hills and southern tidal lowlands. Its main settled areas include the Saint John River valley, the Bay of Fundy watershed, the Miramichi region and the Bathurst area. Indigenous homelands follow the rivers and coasts. The six Wolastoqey communities are Matawaskiye at Madawaska, Neqotkuk at Tobique, Wotstak at Woodstock, Bilijk at Kingsclear, Sitansisk at Fredericton and Welamukotuk at Oromocto. Mi’gmaq communities include Metepenagiag at Red Bank, Natoaganeg at Eel Ground, Esgenoôpetitj at Burnt Church and Elsipogtog at Big Cove. Tjipogtotjg at Buctouche, Ugpi’ganjig at Eel River Bar and Amlamgog near Dorchester complete much of the list. The Peskotomuhkati Nation at Skutik is based at St. Stephen. The whole province is covered by Peace and Friendship Treaties, not land-surrender treaties. The Wolastoqey Nation says its homeland reaches beyond New Brunswick into Quebec and Maine. Historically, Mi’kmaq lands ranged from Nova Scotia to the Gaspé Peninsula, so Mi’gma’gi also crosses provincial lines.

Indigenous New Brunswick today

The Government of New Brunswick lists eight Mi’gmaq communities, six Wolastoqey communities and the Peskotomuhkati Nation at Skutik, near St. Stephen. Many use their own names today, such as Esgenoôpetitj for Burnt Church, Natoaganeg for Eel Ground and Welamukotuk for Oromocto. Two Nation-level organizations support these communities. Mi’gmawe’l Tplu’taqnn Inc. is a non-profit leadership body for nine Mi’gmaq First Nations, working on rights, stewardship, culture and education across Mi’gma’gi. In February 2023, eight of its communities formally asserted title to lands and waters in the province. The Wolastoqey Nation in New Brunswick, formed in 2017, advises its six communities on Crown lands, fisheries and forestry. Language work is central. The Wolastoqey Nation describes its language as the heart of its identity, after years of suppression through residential schools. At the University of New Brunswick in Fredericton, the Mi’kmaq-Wolastoqey Centre acts as a Wabanaki research institute. It offers language classes, crafternoons, an Elders Council and a gathering space called the Mawita’mk Lounge. According to 2021 census figures, 4.4 percent of New Brunswickers are Indigenous.

Life in New Brunswick

About 83 percent of New Brunswick is forest, and no spot sits more than 180 km from the ocean. The northern uplands climb to about 820 metres, while the south has tidal marshes and lowland plains. Landmarks draw visitors from every corner. Saint John has its Reversing Falls, and the tidal bore rolls up rivers off the Bay of Fundy. The Rocks Provincial Park sits in Albert County. The Acadian Historical Village in Caraquet and the Loyalist settlement at Kings Landing tell other chapters. Fundy National Park near Alma and Kouchibouguac National Park near Richibucto protect coast and forest. Seed potatoes are the top farm export, and lobster makes up more than half of the fishery’s landed value. Moncton is a transport hub and home to the Université de Moncton, founded in 1963. Fredericton hosts the Beaverbrook Art Gallery, and Saint John is home to the New Brunswick Museum.

New Brunswick seasons and weather

Expect snowy winters, cool damp springs and foggy days along the Fundy coast. A mid-weight hoodie gets plenty of use, and a hat helps in the raw, windy months.

Communities in New Brunswick

• Moncton
• Fredericton
• Saint John
• Bathurst
• Edmundston
• Miramichi

Keep learning in the XUSI Journal

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• How to Write a Land Acknowledgement That Means Something
• Orange Shirt Day & the National Day for Truth and Reconciliation
• National Indigenous Peoples Day and History Month: A Guide
• All Journal articles

New Brunswick questions